THE ETHNIC CLEANSING OF AUTOCHTHONOUS ITALIANS IN ISTRIA & DALMATIA

This month I am going to translate two  articles appeared on the website "Unione degli Istriani" about the ethnic clearance of the autochthonous Italians in Istria & Dalmatia, done by the Slav population living in these regions during the first half of the XX century. 

  Istria -with the Quarnaro islands- when was inside the Kingdom of Italy, between 1918 and 1947

We all know that there has been continuously attacks of every kind against the survival of the original latin populations in the eastern coastal Adriatic sea, since the end of the Republic of Venice until after the Second World War.  Actually there it is a kind of "campaign" to deny this ethnic "clearance" and for this reason I want to publish these two articles (one about Dalmatia and the second about Istria).

Here it is the first (after my introduction):

INTRODUCTION

Until the beginning of 1920 the Italians of Spalato (now called Split, the main Dalmatia city) never attacked the Slavs (even because of obvious numerical inferiority) and were harassed by Croatian nationalists continuously, as has happened since the end of the XIX century in all Dalmatia.

But after the attack of January 27, 1920 in which were damaged nearly all the Italian-owned shops and the offices of Italian institutions, some Italian sailors of the Italian navy ship "Puglia" now under the command of captain Tommaso Gulli, started to defend themselves and the Dalmatian Italians menacing to use their guns.

On July 27 another attack against the Italians of Spalato was done and a group of officials of this "Puglia" found refuge in a place near the docks: captain Gulli ordered a boat to rescue them, but it was blocked by some Slavs and was forced to fire "alarm shots" in the sky to get help.

Soon Gulli went to the rescue with a MAS torpedo-boat, but approaching the docks found a huge crowd of nationalist Slavs. Shots were fired to the Italians and for the first time they returned fire. A hand granade was thrown to the Mas and hit the sailor Aldo Rossi and others.

Another shot hit captain Gulli, while the Italians killed a man on the docks, whose name was Matej Mis. Anyway, many versions about what happened were done in the next days, by the Yugoslavians and by the Italians.

Captain Gulli was helped in a Hospital but died the next day, while sailor Rossi survived only a few hours.

In the Kingdom of Italy the reaction to what happened in Spalato was of rage and indignation: in Trieste fascists and nationalists attacked the Hotel Balkan (called in Slovenian "Narodni dom" and center of the Slav activities in Trieste) the next day.

In the following years the Italians of Spalato - under the Yugoslavian rule renamed "Split", as was officially called the city since 1919- were continuously harassed in their institutions, schools and shops & business: they declined in a slow but steady way.

At the end of the 1920s, relations between Italy and Yugoslavia worsened again, and the Split press called on the population to boycott the italian shops. One of these shops was the Del Bianco barber shop, since "... the owner is an open and great "Italianizer"..... let us remember that our "Italianizers" are for us greater enemies than true Italians". In the attacks on Italian shops in Spalato in May 1928, the Del Bianco barber shop inside the Peristyle of Diocletian's Palace was destroyed and the owner forced to get refuge in Italy. The above quotations are taken from the daily newspaper Pobeda of 9 March 1928,

Actually the "Spalatini" (as care called the autochthonous Italians of Spalato)  are only one hundred in Croatian Split, with their association called Comunitá italiana di Spalato. They were more than 2082 in the 1910 city census and nearly seven thousand in 1918, including the surroundings! And from Roman centuries until the end of the Napoleon's rule of Dalmatia they were the majority of the Spalato population (approximately 2/3 of all the dalmatian city's inhabitants in 1815).

UNIONE DEGLI ISTRIANI

1930: ITALIANS SUFFERED A "POGROM" IN DALMATIA (THE “POGROM” OF THE ITALIANS OF SPLIT AND SEBENICO THAT NO ONE EVER TALKS ABOUT)

            Photo of Spalato (now called Split in Croatia) in the early 1930s Dalmatia of Yugoslavia

Dear Friends,

we want to remember what happened in Spalato on the night between 18 and 19 October 1930, or what we could call the "pogrom" against the Italians living in the largest city in Dalmatia, a pogrom that continues to remain a taboo. It happened, that night ninety-five years ago, that all the Italian businesses in the city were marked with crosses and writings made with the use of black tar, almost impossible to erase, of the following tenor:

"THIS SHOP IS ITALIAN. DO NOT ENTER!"

The action of that night was the final act of a long persecutory campaign against everything Italian in Yugoslavia and at the same time the start of a massive boycott of Italian merchants and industrialists who, in fact, were forced in a few years to close practically all their businesses.

In Spalato, however, the smear campaign had already begun in January 1930: the city newspaper "Zastava", directed by the fierce enemy of the Italians, the nationalist Oskar Tartalja, gave daily news of Italian public establishments, companies and professionals, under the pretext of making a numerical comparison of the two elements, Italian and Slav.

On January 1, 1931, after the "pogrom", the physical attacks, the destruction of shop windows and the looting of several shops, with the consequent first departures of our totally defenseless compatriots, the daily newspaper ran a full-page admonitory headline "Let's give Split a national character", offering the following well-listed intentions:

"It is our duty:

1) to be enemies of the enemies of our people;

2) to always and everywhere use our Yugoslav language;

3) to protect our language, our money, our men, our shopkeepers;

4) to help our people. We will not have peace until we have removed the foreign trace, until Split acquires a pure Yugoslav national character."

A proclamation, this, worthy of the worst National Socialist projects. But no one ever talks about it.

In Sebenico, however, a few days later, something more explicit, institutional happened. On October 20, 1930, in the session of the City Council, in the presence of the district captain who represented the Government of Belgrade, Councilor Lawyer Medina, former head of the city section of the secret organization Orjuna, voted on the text of the following order of the day, made immediately executable:

"the authorities should intensify in every way their action aimed at taking away every and every means of work from Italian citizens, ordering employers to fire them, denying the granting of new licenses, so as to create impossible living conditions for Italian citizens".

In the same session, Councilor Lawyer Kozul unanimously passed the proposal to erect a monument to King Peter " , replacing  the one to Nicolò Tommaseo with this new monument ".

Borders and ethnicity of Istria in 1910, with actual yellow points as frontier between Italy and Slovenia. Map of the Touring Club Italiano

Here it is the second article (after my introduction):

INTRODUCTION

Istria has been a latin populated region since Roman centuries. The Slav penetration started during the Middle Ages and happened mainly in the eastern area of the peninsula. The western half of Istria remained romance speaking (first with the Dalmatian, then with Venetian and now with the Italian language) until the huge "Istrian-Dalmatian exodus" that happened during and after the Second World War.

This exodus started in September 1943, after  the Italian surrender to the Allies, grew with the communist Tito's massacres in  Istria (the "Foibe" tragedy) and exploded in 1945 & following years (when nearly 350000 Italians escaped from the region that was officially annexed to Yugoslavia in 1947). 

The Dalmatian city of Zara lost in 1944 nearly all the Italians living there: At the start of World War II, Zadar had a population of 24,000; by the end of 1944, this had decreased to 6,000.Though controlled by the Partisans, Zara remained under nominal Italian sovereignty until the Paris Peace Treaties that took effect on 15 September 1947.^[After the war practically all the Dalmatian Italians of Zara left Yugoslavia towards Italy: in 2021 only a dozen Italians remained in the city!.

Also the Istria's coastal city of Pola was the site of a large-scale exodus of its Italian population. Between December 1946 and September 1947, Pola almost completely emptied as its residents left all their possessions and "opted" for Italian citizenship. 28,000 of the city's population of 32,000 left in March/April 1947. 

The last exodus happened in 1954 and  took place after the "Memorandum of Understanding" in London about the Free Territory of Trieste, that gave provisional civil administration of Zone A (with Trieste) to Italy, and Zone B to Yugoslavia.

The so called "Italian Holocaust" is centered on the massacres of the Foibe, done by Yugoslav dictator Tito: the number of victims in the Foibe is uncertain. Historians like Raoul Pupo or Roberto Spazzali estimated the total number of victims at about 5,000; Guido Rumici and Giorgio Pisano' calculate from 11,000 upwards. It was never possible to extract all the thousands of corpses from Foibes because some of them are deeper than several hundred meters. Until few years ago authorities had been able to extract from the pits just a small number of bodies: less than six hundred. 

According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and the one organized in Slovenia in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia).

But this exodus was caused -by the Slavs- with cruelty and sadism in many cases, as can be understood reading the following essay, written by a direct testimony: Nidia Cernecca.

Photo of the recovery of human remains of Italians from the Vines/Goglia Foibe, in Faraguni locality, near Albona d'Istria in October of 1943. From this sinkhole, between 16 and 25 October 1943, the human remains of 84 bodies were recovered (72 Italians, of whom 6 were women, and 12 German soldiers). Of the victims, 51 were initially recognized. In this sinkhole, some victims were thrown while still alive. The murdered were also thrown with a stone tied to their hands with wire; or tied together in such a way that a single victim hit by a gun dragged his still-alive companion tied to him to the bottom of the sinkhole. The criminal perpetrators then threw hand grenades into the Foiba, in order to cause the walls of the sinkhole to collapse, perhaps to facilitate the decomposition of the bodies, thus making their eventual subsequent recognition impossible. The victims were extracted with huge difficulties.The discovery of this Foiba, as a place of execution and burial, is due to the report of  B. Monti of Albona. The only survivors who survived from this Foiba (because screaming for help from the bottom, one day after being pushed inside by the cruel Tito's partisans) were Giovanni Radeticchio and Graziano Udovisi, who as witnesses recounted the event.

UNIONE DEGLI ISTRIANI

“THE TITINI STONED MY FATHER, THEN PLAYED FOOTBALL WITH HIS HEAD. I AM CATHOLIC BUT I CAN'T FORGIVE: MINE IS CALVARY WITHOUT REDEMPTION. ”

“My father was a decent person. I'm not saying it because I idealized the figure. I say this because when I return to my land and speak his name people even today bow their heads in deference. His name was Giuseppe, he was a boy from ‘99, he had fought in WWI. He was an employee in the town hall of Gimino d’Istria, where I was born in ’36. He was a patriot, but he had no office in the fascist National Party. I remember that on Sunday mornings the kitchen at our house was full of illiterate farmers. They were carrying letters to my father from their kids' front. He read them and then wrote the answers.

Love, love my daddy Joseph! I last saw him when I was almost seven years old, and I always remember, like it was yesterday, his last affectionate kiss, and my tiny hands inside his thick hair.

He was captured on October 2, 1943, the next day he was paraded in the village with a chain tied around his neck and a kiss full of stones on his back. With those he was stoned, at the edge of the forest, under a cherry tree. She was 44 years old. Her hair, so black, had suddenly turned white.

In 1992, when Communism fell, I wanted to investigate in person, going back to Istria to find out who had killed him. An eyewitness, a shepherd, led me to that cherry. He could not be wrong: after being forced to watch the execution, engraved, upset, the date on the bark, October 3, 1943. You could read it again, a bit weakened, because in the meantime the tree had grown. Another farmer reported to me that people were incited to stab my dad, but refused to. He was stoned by four local farmers, and one of them my father acted as a godfather. After the stoning, the stoners looked into the mouth of my father’s corpse and saw two teeth covered in gold that tried to pull them out but they couldn’t; they decapitated him and took his head to a Canfanaro ear to recover the capsules. They finally played a soccer match using their smashed heads as a ball, at least as long as it kept their spherical shape.

What happened in Istria was not a war against enemies. Nor fight for idealism. It was a crime determined by a relentless hatred for Italian people. Killed the bride's husband and the children's father, the murderers took themselves to the intimate space of their grief to announce their murder, take away their belongings, intimate them not to look for the corpse and to take away every photo, every memory. They were leading the predestined victims, tied worse than beasts to each other by iron wires, on the edge of the foiba, and not always they shot at all, because it was enough to hit someone, so much weight of this would have pulled down to the bottom, alive, the others, so that of a slow and cruel death they could at the last moment make it count. They stoned people, like my father did, forcing them to carry on their shoulders the stones that would be used to finish them. The victims were staring at them. They cut their testicles, confusing them in their mouths. He enclosed a priest’s head with a barbed wire crown. It was pure cruelty. It was never ending pain. It was, in the history of man, of course, only a moment, but among the most infamous.

There were eight widows in ten days in our family. I'm Catholic, but I haven't forgiven, mine is Calvary without redemption. Trauma at the age of 6-7 marks the character. I have been done an irreparable injustice: I will die with that on my heart. Without truth there is no justice. And without justice there is no peace and I am a woman without peace. Nidia Cernecca

Rest in peace, now, dear Nidia, and thank you for dedicating your life to witness the horror of our terrible holocaust. We will always remember you and honor your father.

Nidia Cernecca (1936-2020)

SUB-ROMAN BRITAIN (410-610 AD)

This month I am going to research info about "Sub-Roman" Britain, that was the name for the British history years between 410 AD (when the Roman legions went away from the British isles) and 610 AD (when the last area of Romanized Britain was conquered by the Anglo-Saxons invaders).

The collapse of the former Western Roman Empire during the so called 'Dark Ages' (that started in Roman Britannia in 410 AD) was gradual. Out of this vacuum arose regional tribes and leaders determined to take back kingdoms that were theirs and oust any Roman presence for good. However, the Roman guard was tenacious and survived in small pockets that emerged in both Gaul and Britain. These areas of Romano-Celtic resistance held out against the Anglo-Saxons until at least the beginning of 7th century in Britain and against the Visigoths and the Merovingian Franks until the late 8th century in France. However some scholars (like John Morris in The Age of Arthur: A History of the British Isles 350-650. London, 1973) think there are remains of semi-romanised Britons until the start of the eight century.

In Britain this two centuries period is usually called "Sub-Roman Britain" and is centered on the "mytical" figure of  King Arthur, a Romanised leader (some historians think  Ambrosius Aurelianus was the "real" king Arthur) of the Romano-Britons who was able to defeat the Germanic invasors with his victory at the battle of Mount Badon around 500 AD ( https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/BritishMountBadon.htm ).

The R1b-U152 presence in Roman Britannia

Furthermore, we have to remember that the Romans established over 70 cities or towns in Britain, including important cities like London, St Albans, Colchester, Winchester, Gloucester, Exeter, Leicester, Lincoln, Manchester and York. But they "genetically" left only a minimal presence in the actual population of these cities. Only the area around Lincoln and York has maintained a relatively huge amount of people with the R1b-U152, the so called "Haplogroup of ancient Romans" (see the following related map). 

Indeed Maciamo Hay wrote in this interesting essay (read the complete article here:https://www.eupedia.com/genetics/britain_ireland_dna.shtml) that "genetically and cromosomically....

......it is very difficult to assess the genetic impact of Romanization on the British population as the Roman citizens, soldiers and slaves who settled in Britannia were not merely people from the Latium or Italy, but could have come from anywhere in the empire. "

Even if we assume that Britain was fully Celtic before the Roman conquest, similar to Ireland or the Scottish Highland once Germanic DNA has been removed, it is still very hard at present to clearly differentiate Brythonic Celts from other Celts from the continent, notably Gaul, who might have settled in Roman Britain. Even the Romans from Italy appear to have belonged predominantly to the same R1b-U152 as Hallstatt and La Tène Celts, also accompanied by significant minorities of G2a-U1 and J2b. Deeper subclade analysis may soon allow population geneticists to distinguish between Roman/Italic and Celtic subclades within these haplogroups. At present it seems that the L2 and Z36 subclades of R1b-U152 are more Celtic/Gaulish, while Z56 and Z192 are more Italic/Roman.

Map of the R1b-U152 in western Europe 

So, experts think that the Romans are in a maximum roughly 15% of male lineages of "Roman" origin for England, 10% for Wales, and 7% for Scotland. However, it would be reasonable to assume that at least half of these come from Alpine Celts and Normans, and probably more in Scotland's case. It is hard to explain the discrepancy with the 30-35% of autosomal genes of Mediterranean origin that are now present in the modern population of England. One explanation is that a substantial share of Romano-British male population was killed by the invading Anglo-Saxons, and that autosomal genes were passed on through Roman-British mothers who bore the children of the Germanic invaders....."

Some researchers (like D'Ambrosio of the University of Genova) wonder why the farm area around Lincoln (read also https://www.reading.ac.uk/web/files/archaeology/Reading_April_14_talk_AS.pdf )  is the only one in modern Great Britain with actual population showing genetically a 15/20% of R1b-U152, the so called "haplogroup of Ancient Romans" (a percentage that is similar to the one in Mediterranean Spain around Valencia!). One possible explanation is that the Roman villas population of the area survived the onslaught remembered by Gildas in his "De excidio Britanniae" getting refuge in the nearby southern Pennines  mountains and later-when better times arrived during the last Sub-Roman Britain decades- these Romanized populations came back to where they used to live.

Probably this is what happened near Lincoln in the small city of Southwell, that was called "Tiovulginacester" in Sub-roman times, where there also are huge percentages of the Haplogroup J2 (typically originated in Anatolia & southern Italy).

Additionally we must pinpoint that in the city of Southwell (near Lincoln) the remains of an opulent Roman villa were excavated in 1959. Part of a mural from the excavation is displayed in the Minster. It is one of three of its type found in the territories of the Corieltauvi (or Coritani) tribes – along with Scampton in Lincolnshire and Norfolk Street in Leicestershire. A stretch of the Fosse Way runs on the far bank of the River Trent, with evidence of Roman settlement at Ad Pontem ("to the bridge" or "at the bridge"), north-west of the village of East Stoke. Other evidence of Roman settlement includes the use of Roman bricks in prebendary buildings around the Minster, remains of a ditch or fosse discovered at Burgage Hill in the 19th century, and possible Roman remains beneath the Church Street site of the recently vacated Minster School...The Venerable Bede records a multiple baptism in the "flood of the Trent" near "Tiovulginacester" by Paulinus in the presence of Edwin of Northumbria, whom he had converted to Christianity in 627. There is disagreement on the location of Tiovulginacester, but Paulinus certainly visited it and may have founded the first church in Southwell: the existence of this place called Tiovulginacester clearly shows that a partially romanised population was still living there in the early seventh century...BD

 

British Latin

 The Latin spoken in the British Isles after the Roman occupation left numerous traces in loanwords into British Celtic (spoken by the indigenous Celtic population of England and ancestral to Welsh, Cornish, and Breton) and early Anglo-Saxon (Old English). It is probable that "British Latin" over time developed differently from the Latin spoken on the Continent, but scholars do not agree on what its distinctive features were. This is in spite of the dramatic discoveries starting in the late 20th century (e.g., the Vindolanda tablets) that have greatly augmented the documentation of British Latin.

 So, a British variety of Late Latin, a nascent ‘British Romance’ called "British Latin", was probably rather widely spoken, not only in bilingual situations if not as a preferred and only vernacular, across the fifth century and into the sixth. in the area fully romanised. If interested read "The Romance of early Britain: Latin, British,and English, c.400-600" ( https://academic.oup.com/book/55329/chapter/434347840.)

Map showing the fully romanised region of Britain around 450 AD and a few decades later.  In these arreas the remaining romanised Britons developed the "British latin", a romance language. The remaining areas of former Roman Britannia were "semi-romanised" (from Cornwall to the Hadrian wall).

Chronology of sub-Roman Britannia

The following are excerpts from an interesting essay about the years between 410 and 610 AD, taken from "History Files" ( in " https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/MainFeaturesIndex.htm ):

The history of the British Isles from the end of the most recent ice age to the formation of the united Anglo-Saxon kingdom forms several stages and covers a good deal of conflict. It starts with the Early Cultures which appear prior to the Iron Age. Then the Celtic occupation of Prydein leads up to the Roman incursions and the creation of Roman Britain.

Subsequent decline generated the Post-Roman period in which all stories of Arthur are contained, but this also covers the gradual loss of Celtic power in the land and its marginalisation on the western and northern fringes. With the expulsion of Roman officials in AD 409 (see feature link), Britain again became independent of Rome and was not re-occupied.

The fragmentation which had begun to emerge towards the end of the fourth century now appears to have accelerated, with minor princes, newly declared kings, and Roman-style magistrates all vying for power and influence while also facing the threat of extinction at the hands of the various barbarian tribes which were encroaching on the borders from all sides. A British Church was in evidence, with practices which would become increasingly isolated from those of the Roman Church.

Various units of laeti and foederati had been settled in the country from the mid-fourth century onwards (probably following the sudden visit to Britain by Emperor Constans in 343). Often Germanic in origin, by 409 they had been settled for up to sixty years and more, and may not have retained much of their 'Germanness' except that they often lived in self-sustaining communities outside city walls. The country was probably filled with similar immigrants from all over the former empire: Danubians, Gauls, Iberians, Italians, and others, many of them the descendants of legionnaires and all settled for some time. By now they were part of the very fabric of the country.

However, as Edward Dawson confirms when backing up the 'Germanness' point above, later units of laeti may not have been so settled. There appears to have been large numbers of them around many towns in the south-east of Britain. Amongst all the empire's immigrants, it was Germanic groups who best retained their cultural identity, sometimes for generations, continuing to teach their children German when others were learning Latin, or perhaps native British. When fresh waves of Germans arrived, conquering all in their path, it was probably not hard for the settled. Germans to experience a tactical change of loyalty.

DETAILED CHRONOLOGY:

409 - c.425	This is a period in which central administration apparently breaks down to an extent, with local administrative centres and then rulers beginning to appear. The climb to power of Vortigern of the Paganes seems to reverse this trend (see feature link), although in some regions he probably has to administer what are in effect kingdoms rather than provinces. Even his own territory seems to have been divided into sub-kingdoms, such as Buellt and Guorthegirnain. Quite possibly, in true Roman fashion, he acquires the title of emperor, perhaps proclaiming himself 'Emperor of Britannia' in order to cement his hold on power. It seems that he and Aurelius Ambrosius of Caer Gloui form the figureheads for opposing parties, but for the moment it is he who has dominance. This artistic reconstruction shows the amphitheatre at Caer Celemion (Calleva Atrebatum, modern Silchester), which was built outside the walls, to the north-east of the town itself
	During this period, mercenaries, or laeti, are settled in some regions of the country, possibly to bolster populations of foederati and laeti which may already have been in place for some generations. Groups are known to exist along the Thames Valley, in the north of Caer Celemion, and along the Saxon Shore from Caer Gwinntguic to Ceint and Caer Went. There is a strong economic reason for placing them in the Thames Valley and other lowland areas. Northern coastal Germans (Angles, Jutes, Frisians, and Saxons) are accustomed to employing a farm economy set in lowlands, not uplands. They know how to work marshes and river valleys, so these settlement areas suit them entirely.
416	A synod is held in Carthage (the 'Council of Carthage') in the Roman province of Africa which takes a firm line against the Pelagian 'heresy'. Pelagius (circa 354-420 or 440) is a British ascetic who has allegedly denied the doctrine of original sin. He finds many supporters in Britain and the British Church, especially amongst the educated classes (see feature link). The Thames Valley forms an east-west passage through the hills between London and Surrey and also through the hills of Wiltshire, providing easy access for river users to the River Avon around Bath
420	The use of coinage (usually silver coins) as the means of substantial payment seems to die out within ten years of this date. However, a high level of self-sufficiency in both civil service and the army has already become the established norm in Britain for the best part of a century, so this in itself is far from being a sign of the collapse of civilisation.
fl c.420s?	Anblaud / Amlawdd Wledig		Ruler of Ercing. First emperor of independent Britain?
c.421	Triphun is the Irish leader of the Déisi in Demetia in the west of Britain. As the fourth generation of Déisi to have been raised in Britain, the tribe now has roots in the country and has clearly developed a certain degree of reliability and trustworthiness. By taking a Roman name, Triphun has become part of the British ruling elite, so much so that he is able to marry Gweldyr, the Romano-British heiress of Demetia, and become king himself of what becomes known as Dyfed.
fl c.425 - c.455	Wortigernos / Vitalinus / Vortigern		Ruler of Paganes. Second emperor of Britain? Died by fire.
429	St Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, and Lupus, bishop of Troyes, visit Britain to fight the Pelagian 'heresy' which is running rampant through the British Church. They meet with a still extant Romano-British aristocracy (the principle proponents of the heresy), probably at Caer Mincip. The following year, in line with standard Roman imperial policy in Gaul, Vortigern brings in Saxon allies to help restore order along the borders. The Alleluia Victory saw St Germanus lead the Britons to a bloodless victory over marauding Saxons, perhaps demonstrating that the country was finally managing its own defence
c.432 - 436	Aurelius Ambrosius of Caer Gloui is apparently a leader of a British council, which presumably answers to Vortigern. It is his decision to confirm the Irish Déisi as commanders of the Demetia area of the west coast in order to counter the threat of Irish raiders. Vortigern acquiesces and assigns to Ambrosius 'Dinas Emrys and all the western lands', suggesting that Ambrosius becomes the architect for the defence of these western areas. This is motivated by the council's reluctance to depend entirely upon Saxon mercenaries, with their constant demands for increased provisions, especially in an area in which they will be lightly supervised. The Déisi have already been settled for some time and are already self-supporting.
c.437/438	According to Gildas (see feature link) and Nennius when referring either to Aurelianus Ambrosius (Ambrosius 'the Elder') or his son, this family represents the Romanised nobility in Britain. As already mentioned, they appear to be based in the city of Caer Gloui and its surrounding territories. They are the main opposition to Vortigern's pro-Celtic faction, and it is at this time that the increasing animosity between the two groups erupts into internecine warfare. The factions fight the Battle of Guolloppum (Cat Guolph, Wallop in Hampshire). The result is uncertain, but it is probably followed by a period of civil strife in eastern and southern Britain. With discord building in the country between about 420-450, many Romano-Britons left in a hurry, burying their wealth in the hope that they could return in better times to collect it
fl c.437 - c.446	Ambrosius 'the Elder'		Leader of Romanised opposition in Britain. Killed by plague.
c.440 - 441	Saxon foederati and laeti (settled largely on the east coast and Thames Valley, and probably increased in number since the barbarian raids on Britain of 409) take advantage of the unrest and openly revolt. As a cause they cite the failure of the British to supply them with provisions which may have been reduced to zero as a consequence of the civil war. By 441, the Gallic Chronicles report large sections of Britain under Germanic control following the Saxon revolt: 'Britain, abandoned by the Romans, passed into the power of the Saxons'. Communications between Britain and Gaul are disrupted, vacated towns and cities are in ruin. The migration of Romano-Britons towards the west and to Armorica turns into a torrent (see feature link), with emigrants coming especially from Dumnonia and Cornubia. The country begins to be divided geographically, along factional lines.
c.446	St Germanus' second visit to Britain rids the country of the last of the Pelagian heresy when he visits Elafius' subjects. Elafius seems likely to be the leader of the territory of Caer Gwinntguic. Severe plague hits southern Britain in the same year, and unburied bodies are to be found in the streets of cities such as Caer Ceri. By the mid-fifth century Londinium had been largely abandoned following at least half a century of slow decay and a steadily dwindling population, but with trade virtually ceased the city's purpose was temporarily ended
450	Former Celtic tribal associations continue to re-emerge as independent territories and kingdoms develop over the course of the fifth century. There is evidence of the reuse and refortification of Iron Age hill forts, while the newly-created kingdom of Brycheiniog creates a capital on a crannog. Cadbury Congresbury in Somerset is producing substantial quantities of Mediterranean pottery, with smaller amounts also coming from South Cadbury as local leaders move their residences to more protected locations. It is attacks by the Picts (under Drust mac Erp) and Irish Scotti which prompts Vortigern to hire Jutish and Angle mercenaries to fight them off. Hengist and Horsa are invited into Britain and land at Ypwines fleot (Ebbsfleet). Traditionally, they fulfil the terms of their contract by fighting back the invaders and receive territory on which to settle on the island of Ynys Tanatus (Thanet) in Ceint (although according to British oral tradition, they are first given territory around the Wash and only gain Tanatus after their numbers are swelled by a massive influx of their countrymen).
c.455	According to later British tradition, Vortigern is removed from office by the council after trying to settle yet more foreign laeti in Britain, this time in the north-east, within the territory of the 'Kingdom of Northern Britain'. The high kingship is given to his eldest son, the able and popular Vortimer. Hengist, seeing that he no longer has a malleable ally, revolts and the territory or kingdom of Ceint is quickly overrun. This map of Britain concentrates on British territories and kingdoms which were established during the fourth and fifth centuries AD, as the Saxons and Angles began their settlement of the east coast (click or tap on map to view full sized)
fl c.455 - 457	Vortimer / Britu		Son of Vortigern. King of Gwent. Elevated by the council.
c.455	In the east of the island, the new and more serious foederati revolt sees a loss of territory to Jutes and Angles which is never regained by the Britons. The new arrivals have seen how weak are the British defences and begin a takeover of the kingdom of Ceint, aided by the many foederati settlements in key areas of the land, especially along the Saxon Shore forts and at Canterbury. They are probably further encouraged by the chaos in Roman Gaul following the murder of the magister militum Aetius. Hengist's polyglot army fights British forces (traditionally commanded by Vortimer) at a place they name Ægelesthrep or Ægelsthrep (probably Aylesford or, less likely, Epsford, both in Kent). Vortimer's brother, Cadeyrn Fendigaid, ruler of the Paganes, is killed, as is Hengist's brother, Horsa. Again according to later tradition, Vortimer is poisoned and his death allows Vortigern temporarily to reclaim the high kingship before he is faced by Ambrosius Aurelianus. Vortigern flees to his ancestral lands, 'at the fortified camp of Genoreu, on the hill called Cloartius', in Ercing, by the River Wye. Vortigern's policy of hiring mercenaries to help with Britain's defences was entirely in line with those of the late Roman period, but the chaos in the country - plague, mercenary revolt, civil war, frequent pirate raids - probably convinced Hengist and Horsa (shown here being greeted by Vortigern) that land was ripe for the taking
	There he meets his end when Ambrosius sets fire to his fortress with him inside it. Historically speaking, as much as extremely limited historical knowledge will allow, Aurelianus and his probable successor, Artorius (see feature link), seem to lead the fight to preserve the remaining British territory. If Vortigern had titled himself 'Emperor of Britannia', then it seems reasonable to assume that his successors copy this, but after Artorius even the grounds for this supposition become reduced. As if all that isn't enough, in the region of Deywr within the 'Kingdom of Northern Britain', Soemel is noted by the later royal pedigree as someone who 'separated Deira from Bernicia'. It seems to be Soemel who establishes negotiated terms of service, perhaps on a semi-independent basis. This time of chaos and confusion would be an ideal date for this event. At the same time, it would seem likely that Angles from Deywr are settling in Lindsey, which may still be under Romano-British control (see feature link).
fl c.457 - c.480	Ambrosius Aurelianus (Riothamus?)		Magistrate of Caer Gloui. Possible emperor of Britain.
	Geoffrey of Monmouth proposes an almost entirely mythical account of the life of Ambrosius Aurelianus (see feature link). It ends with him being poisoned by Saxons, and his brother, Uther Pendragon, succeeds him. An artist's impression of Roman Aquae Sulis, later known as Caer Baddan to the Romano-British and which retains that name in an altered fashion today (Bath)
	Uther immediately sets out to attack those Saxons who are involved in his brother's death, after they have teamed up with Paschent (Pascent of Buellt), son of Vortigern, and a young nobleman of Ireland named Gillomanius (could this individual be the contemporaneous High King Lóeguire macNéill?). Uther defeats them all, killing Paschent and Gillomanius. Then Uther has to defeat a resurgent Octa (which scholars think might actually be the real name of Hengist of Kent) before enjoying a largely peaceful reign which leads up to the well-known death of Gorlois of Cornwall and the birth of Arthur Pendragon (with this event, according to legend, taking place in Tintagel, possibly a Dumnonian royal court at this time - see feature link).
457	After much hard fighting at a place called Crecganford (Crayford in Kent), and apparently heavy losses, the British abandon Ceint. Those Saxons who had joined Hengist in 455 also settle in what is becoming Kent, but they have little impact on the Jutish nature of the kingdom and leave few traces. Some of them instead push farther west to form early elements of the Middel Seaxe.
c.460	Occupation of Cadbury Castle is re-established, perhaps selected for its defensive capabilities in these troubled times. Its reoccupation is not in the form of a city or an established seat of government for successive rulers. Instead it seems to be somewhere which a British leader of stature, perhaps Ambrosius Aurelianus, or Riothamus (if they are not one and the same person), makes his personal headquarters. Even today, Cadbury Castle presents the image of a powerful and defensible location, with views across the whole of Somerset giving it a level of strategic importance
468 - 469	Riothamus, 'King of the Britons', crosses the English Channel to Gaul, bringing 12,000 ship-borne troops. 'Riothamus' is a title rather than a name, apparently meaning 'supreme king', which raises the possibility that he is Ambrosius Aurelianus (see feature link). Riothamus remains in the country for a year or more (perhaps reinforced by Armorican Bretons), and advances to Bourges and even farther. Gaul's imperial prefect, the deputy of the Western Roman emperor, treacherously undermines him by apparently dealing with the Visigoths. Caught by surprise by the Visigoths, Riothamus fights a drawn-out battle near Bourges but is eventually defeated when no imperial forces come to his assistance. He escapes with the remnants of his army into the nearby territory of the Burgundians, never to be heard of again. A second battle soon follows which involves a combined army consisting of units of Romans, troops from Soissons under Comes Paulus, and Burgundian foederati, but they are also defeated, and Soissons and Armorica are cut off from Rome. The disappearance from history of Riothamus does not rule out the possibility of him successfully returning to Britain, but this would also be a reasonable date for Arthur to take command of Britain's defence as his successor. This map shows the expansion of the Frankish kingdom between AD 481-511 and the presence of the Roman domain of Soissons (click or tap on map to view full sized)
477	Newly arrived Saxons under Ælle and his sons land at Cymens ora and beat off the Britons who oppose their landing (part of the proposed British kingdom of Rhegin), driving them to take refuge in the great forest called Andredesleag (The Weald). These Saxons quickly become known as the Suth Seaxe.
fl c.480 - 511	Artorius / Arthur Pendragon		Son of Uthyr/Uther & Eigr. Possible emperor of Britain.
	There is a great deal of material which has been written about Arthur, or more properly Artorius, but there is little direct proof of his existence. For that reason several scholars have chosen to disbelieve entirely in his existence. However, it seems impossible that an individual who makes such an impact on history that a swathe of later generations of kings name their sons after him, and who is included in a vast body of literature, could not exist. In an historical sense, it seems logical to place him in the last few decades of the fifth century, governing, or at least protecting, the country after Ambrosius Aurelianus and before his traditional date of death in 511 (or 537 by some sources), and perhaps claiming Cadbury Castle as his military headquarters (see feature link). Traditionally, again, he is the son of Eigr (Ygerna), the daughter of Anblaud 'the Imperator', who has a connection to Ercing. He marries Guinevere, a medieval form of a Cornish name which is probably Veneva (and which descends as the modern Jennifer). She is a princess of Dumnonia, and possibly a sister to King Gerren. Sir Cligés is one of the less well-known knights of the round table, a poor knight because of his generosity who is rewarded by Uther Pendragon for his kindly ways and selflessness
	Artorius himself is primarily a leader of cavalry, the best weapon of the British against the foot-slogging Saxons for as long as they can maintain their breeding stock of large warhorses. This is the force he leads against Geoffrey of Monmouth's Saxon leaders, Colgrin, Badulf, and Chelderic (the first of whom is sometimes linked to Deywr), while being supported by King Hoel of Brittany. This is also how he enters into legend.
486	Clovis of the Franks defeats, captures and executes Syagrius, the last Roman commander of Soissons. The Franks are now completely dominant in northern Gaul and Roman control has been thrown off. The death of Syagrius may also sends a signal to Saxons and other Germanic peoples that attempting to settle in Gaul is now hopeless, although the situation regarding migrants is hard to determine.
488	This is the last recorded entry for the Jutes of Kent in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle until 565. Fighting against the Britons move further westwards as they lose the south coast to the Suth Seaxe, Londinium to the Middel Seaxe and their Suther-ge, and the Upper Thames to the Thames Valley Saxons and Ciltern Saetan (despite the long resistance in the latter area which is offered by Cynwidion and Caer Mincip). Gawain of the Guotodin is perhaps one of the most famous of Arthur's 'Knights of the Round Table', but his origins seem to lay in the Lothian region, although his actual presence there seems to have been extremely limited
	However, the influx of Saxon fighters may have slackened since 460, when the prospects for soldiers of fortune may have seemed better in the remnants of Roman Gaul, coupled with the fact that the Britons are apparently starting to gain the upper hand (especially in the traditional twelve victorious battles of Arthur in locations such as Lind Colun). Despite this apparent improvement in fortunes, the sense of profound shock which has been dealt to British society by events since the first major Saxon revolt around 441 has triggered changes which will see the rapid mutation of the British language into 'Early Welsh' in the space of about a century. Young people in this period who grow up with British and Latin languages may be hearing their grandchildren speaking a different tongue. Even the bardic tradition begins to break down, with the sounds and patterns of their words destroyed by the changes. Much of the Iron Age tradition is lost, although fragments do survive.
495	According to tradition, Cerdic lands in five ships on the south coast at Cerdices ora, together with Saxon and possibly some Jutish companions, and begins a takeover of the local Jutish, Saxon, and sub-Roman territories. Those Jutes and Saxons who are already settled there are apparently already referring to themselves as West Seaxe (possibly separate from the earlier Meonware settlers to their east). The Roman city of Canterbury was, by the sixth century, in ruins, with small Jutish houses built in between. The remains of the city wall can be seen all around them
	The fighting begins on the same day as Cerdic 'arrives', suggesting that his potential power play begins in violence or immediate resistance. If Cerdic is in fact a Briton who rebels against the remaining central authority (which seems to be a distinct possibility), then given his location he could be serving as a magistrate of the former Belgae territory of Caer Gwinntguic until he seizes part of the territory in order to found his own little empire. It is another blow to British unity and defence.
c.496	Arthur seemingly commands the defence of Mons Badonicus against a confederation of Saxon and Jutish warriors which is most likely led by Ælle of the Suth Saxe (see feature link). The British victory grants them a generation of relative peace and consigns the South Saxons to subsequent obscurity. All building and repair work on major new defensive works probably comes to an end with the victory. There is now a gap in Germanic Bretwaldas for the next half century. This is probably due to the Mons Badonicus defeat and the long peace between the Britons and the Germanic coastal settlements. As there is no significant warfare, there can be no significantly superior war leader to push forward the Germanic advance. Quite the opposite, in fact, as there seems to be a reverse migration of Angles and Saxons into continental Europe during the first half of the sixth century. Those who remain are firmly in control of the east (see feature link, right). The coming of Ælle and his apparently pre-established status as bretwalda spelled eventual defeat and death for the Britons of modern Sussex, and quite possibly led to the siege of Mons Badonicus
	Geoffrey of Monmouth has Arthur handing over the kingship to Constantine, but that would presume that the dating shown here is wrong. An alternative date (also given by Geoffrey) for Arthur's retreat to Avalon (Glastonbury in Dumnonia) is 542, which would provide an overlap between Arthur and Constantine, but would displace Arthur's fifth century activity against the Saxons. This revision may only work if his father, Uther Pendragon, actually does exist and has enjoyed the long reign given to him by Geoffrey.
fl c.530 - c.540	Constantine / Custennin ab Cado		King of Dumnonia. Successor to Arthur?
531	On the other side of the English Channel, the Franks of Austrasia conquer the Thuringians. Portions of territory are lost to Saxons, probably to the Continental Saxons, but there also seems to be a reverse migration of Germanics from the east coast of Britain, where the recent British victory at Mons Badonicus has cut them off from the acquisition of new lands. These returning Angles and Saxons appear to be given land in Thuringia by King Theuderich. However, it is also at this time, in this century, that the migration of Britons from the mainland to Brittany is at its heaviest, weakening the British defensive position for the future.
fl 540	Aurelius Conanus		King of Caer Gloui.
? - 540	Vortiporus / Vortiporius		King of the formerly client Déisi of Dyfed.
c.540	Vortipor(us) of the Déisi of Dyfed is clearly a powerful figure in British history, as noted by his being included in the list of high kings of Britain. His name has been recorded in various ways, from the Latinised Vortipor itself, to the Gaulish Voteporix, and the (perhaps) more genuinely original Vortepor mac Aricol. Even this has been recorded in later Gaelic as Gartbuir mac Alchoil. The coast of Pembrokeshire, part of the territory of the Demetae and the later kingdom of Dyfed, is a mixture of sandy beaches and daunting rocks (as at Marloes Sands, shown here), but there would have been many places for the Déisi to land and seize some territory
fl c.540 - 549	Malgo / Maglocun / Maelgwyn Gwynedd		King of Venedotia.
547	In the north, the British kingdom of Bernaccia is seized by Angles who have been serving as laeti. The ruling king, Morgan Bulc is forced out. He takes refuge with the Guotodin, shifting his power base there, but the loss leaves a gaping hole in the defences of the eastern coastline. It is the first such breach in the defences of the north, despite a century of such chaos to the south of Britain, and suddenly the defensive strength of the 'Men of the North' looks shaky.
549 - c.600	Following the death of the powerful Maelgwyn of Venedotia, and given the dearth of information about the northern British kings at this time, it is entirely plausible to place first the 'three unnamed tyrants' and then Keretic - see below - as kings in the north. The Yellow Plague which sweeps through the country hits the Britons far harder than it does the invaders, finally shifting the balance of power in favour of the latter. Even the Picts seem to be affected by the plague, with the possible loss of at least one of their kings, Drust mac Munaith, in 552. By the mid-sixth century, Saxons were settling around Londinium, and using pots such as these for their cremation burials, while the seax blade is generally more Frankish than Saxon, but the city itself remained overgrown and in ruins for another half a century
	It is odd to have such a gap so late in the list, but not if the next four rulers are from the poorly documented north. The Saxon advance in the south also lends weight to this hypothesis (which is proposed by Mick Baker). Their westwards advance becomes much more rapid, with them soon swallowing much of Somerset and Dorset from Dumnonia. The Angles also advance, taking large swathes of central and northern Britain, and ending any realistic claim by the high kings of Britain to rule over the whole island. Three unnamed tyrants now claim the high kingship. The names below are accepted as high kings in other references, and their dates fall conveniently into the gap left between the reigns of Malgo and Keretic, but they are not in the list formed by Geoffrey of Monmouth. To differentiate them, they are shown here in red text.
549 - 560?		Morgan Bulc	King of Bernaccia (to 547), and Guotodin (c.560 onwards).
552	The West Seaxe conquest of Caer Gwinntguic proves that the southern Saxons have recovered from their massive Mons Badonicus defeat. From this point onwards, the Britons continually lose territory until the modern borders of Wales are decided. A wall painting in the Roman palace of Venta Belgarum as reconstructed by Sean A MacKenna (1932-2012), an expert in excavation, conservation, structure, and restoration
560? - 579		Rhydderch Hen	King of Alt Clut.
579 - 590		Urien	King of North Rheged.
577	Caer Gloui, together with Caer Baddan and Caer Ceri, falls to the West Seaxe. With this collapse, the territory of Caer Celemion to the east is now totally isolated, and Dumnonia is cut off from any overland contact with other surviving British territories (and largely disappears from the overall story as far as the rest of the Britons are concerned). Gwent and Pengwern now form the western frontier against further Saxon advances. The Hwicce take over the territory and eventually push its borders north into Worcestershire, at the expense of Pengwern.
580	Ebrauc (York) falls to the Angles of Deira. It is a major blow to British hopes of regaining control of the country and blots out at least two and-a-half centuries of Christian worship in one of the British Church's key bishoprics. It seems likely that, if he exists, Geoffrey of Monmouth's Archbishop Tadioceus of York flees the city with the rest of the nobility, holding his title as an exile, perhaps from Elmet.
590 - 613	Keretic / Keredic / Ceredig		Probably the same Ceretic as in Elmet.
595	The Annales Cambriae (see feature link) records the death of Dynod of Dunoting in battle against the Bernicians. He is probably the last British ruler of the Pennines (unless the remnants of the territory are absorbed into North Rheged). Despite the focus of settlement now being away from the old fort, Glevum's Roman walls were still very much in use in the sixth century, at least until the city's fall to the West Seaxe
	His family are forced to flee to Powys, including his second son, the famous bard, Aneirin, while another son, Deiniol, is already in Gwynedd as the British Church's first bishop of Bangor. By this time the Deiran and Bernician Angles are pushing far into British territory, and the Iclingas are expanding to the south with only Elmet and the probable Cynwidion and Caer Mincip alliance holding out in this region as enclaves until 616-617, and South Rheged until about 613.
c.597	The Gododdin is a long series of elegies composed from the early seventh century onwards which commemorates a force of Britons who assemble in Guotodin at this time. This force marches south to fight the Angles at Catreath and seemingly attacks the Roman fort near the strategic road junction now called Scotch Corner. Ultimately, the battle is a disaster for the Britons. The flower of the northern British warrior class is decimated by the superior numbers of the Bernicians. Guotodin, as well as the other kingdoms of the north, probably including Elmet, are all fatally weakened by the defeat. The Mote of Mark is an early hill fort at Rockcliffe, overlooking Rough Firth, which was occupied in the sixth century, presumably by Rheged's nobility

603	The first meeting takes place between the Roman Church in the form of St Augustine of Canterbury, and the Celtic Church (the descendant of the former British Church of the Roman period). It is arranged when Æthelbert of the Cantware uses the Hwicce as intermediaries, and the meeting goes favourably for Augustine. A second meeting is quickly arranged, although perhaps not in the same year. This takes place at Abberley in Worcestershire, probably close to the border between the Hwicce and Pengwern. It is attended by seven bishops of the Celtic church, along with many learned monks, mainly from Bangor-is-Coed (in Pengwern). The meeting ends in disappointment for the Roman envoy, with no agreements of cooperation or unity being reached between the two churches, especially in regard to the important question of the calculations for Easter and evangelising the pagan English.
c.600 - 610	The territory of Caer Celemion is destroyed, probably by Ceawlin of the West Seaxe. It is the last British-held territory south of London and east of Dorset to fall. The town of Calleva Atrebatum is abandoned and its wells are filled in to prevent its citizens from returning. Caer Celemion's re-use of a former Roman temple at the top of Lowbury Hill (near Compton in west Berkshire) in the mid-500s as a look-out point ended with the territory's fall, but it did see further use as an Anglo-Saxon cemetery
c.597 Y Gododdin is a long series of elegies composed in Old Welsh from the early seventh century onwards, principally by Aneirin, son of Dunaut of Dunoting. It commemorates a force of Britons who assemble near Din Eidyn at this time in preparation for facing their powerful foe. It includes not only the still-wealthy and aggressively strong Guotodin themselves, but warriors from all over the country, including 'three chiefs of Novant', clearly the nearby Novantae in post-Roman form (and also an unknown number of peasant militia who are not worthy of mention in a grand poem). After attending 'churches for shriving, true is the tale, death confronted them' - clearly the British Church exists here - this force marches south to fight the Angles at Catreath (generally accepted as being modern Catterick, approximately eighty kilometres north of Ebrauc). It seems strange that they should march past Bamburgh on their way, the capital of the early Bernician kingdom, but perhaps not if they are making an attempt to reclaim the lost capital of the North, Ebrauc. The attack against the Angles at the end of the sixth century appears to have been a last-ditch attempt by the semi-Romanised Britons to rid the land of these invaders - and it failed, albeit gloriously The battle seems to take place during an attack against the Roman fort near the strategic road junction now called Scotch Corner, by the south bank of the Swale at Catterick Bridge. Gwawrddur is praised for 'glutting black ravens on the wall of the fort, though he was not Arthur' (a term used to denote great slaughter of the enemy, but even so this warrior is still not a match for Britain's heroic battle leader of the previous century). Ultimately, the battle is a disaster for the Britons. The flower of the northern British warrior class is decimated by the superior numbers of the Bernicians or Deirans. Guotodin, as well as the other kingdoms of the north, probably including Elmet, are all fatally weakened by the defeat. ? ? Unknown survivor of Catreath. Ruled (truncated?) kingdom. 638 The events of around 597, as chronicled in the Gododdin, sound the death knell for the kingdom. Unable to recover from this, the Annals of Ulster note pithily 'the battle of Glenn Muiresan and the besieging of Eten' - Din Eidyn. No more is mentioned, not even the outcome of the battle or subsequent siege. The monks on Iona record that the attacker is Domnal Brecc of Dál Riata, and defeat for the Britons is clearly implied as the battle leads to the siege. Din Eidyn apparently falls to Oswald of Bernicia (soon afterwards, it seems), and notably the Irish annals use a variant of its name - Eten - to help the case against 'Din Eidyn' being an invention of the Angles.
	The old Roman fort at Viroconium, one of their largest settlements, was substantially and skilfully rebuilt in timber between about 530-570, and then mostly dismantled by 600, during the period in which Pengwern may have achieved a semblance of independent Romano-British rule

LINKS:

1) https://researchomnia.blogspot.com/2020/07/the-last-romanized-britons.html?showComment=1740696626858#c85685339621544127

2) https://researchomnia.blogspot.com/2019/11/orkney-possible-6th-province-of-roman.html